Science (80% completion)

Chemistry

Physical and Chemical Properties

A Physical Property is a characteristic or description of a substance.
A Chemical Property is a characteristic behaviour that occurs when the substance changes into something new.
Ex/ Flammability, corrosion, reaction between acid and base.

Physical and Chemical Changes

A Physical Change is a change that does not produce a new substance. Most physical changes can be reversed. Ex/ melting, evaporation, dissolving, condensation.
A Chemical Change is a change that produces a new substance is called a chemical change. Most chemical changes are irreversible, however there are exceptions, such as rechargeable batteries. Ex/ Heat or light is produced, a precipitate forms, gas forms.

Workplace Hazardous Material Information System (WHMIS)

WHMIS provides Canadian workers with information on the safe use of hazardous products in the workplace. Employers are by-law required to provide this information.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

MSDS sheets provide additional information on the hazardous properties, safe handling, and storage procedures, and what to do in case of an emergency.

Chemical Period and Groups

Each row of elements is called a Period.
Each column of elements is called a  Group or Family.

• Group one elements (with the exception of hydrogen) are the alkali metals. These elements are soft, highly reactive metals.
• Group two elements are light, reactive alkaline earth metals.
• Group seventeen elements are the halogens. They are one of the most reactive groups on the periodic table.
• Group eighteen elements are the noble gases. Unlike the halogens, the noble gases are so stable that they rarely react with any other chemical.

Atomic Structure

	Proton	Neutron	Electron
Electrical Charge	positive	neutral	negative
Symbol	p+	no	e-
location	nucleus	nucleus	orbit around nucleus.

The Bohr-Rutherford Diagram

the Bohr-Rutherford Diagram  is a model representing the arrangements of electrons in orbits around the nucleus of the atom.
It is only useful for describing the first twenty elements.

Atoms and Ions

An ion is a charged particle that results when an atom gains or loses one or more electron.
An atom forms an ion by losing or gaining electrons to complete its valence shell. For example, sodium loses one electron, forming a positive charge of +1.
A positive ion is called a cation.
A negative ion is called a anion.

Ionic Compounds

An Ionic Compound is a compound made up of one or more positive metal ions, and one or more non-metal ions.
An Ionic Bond refers to the simultaneous strong attraction of positive and negative ions in an ionic compound.
In ionic compounds, the metal tends to lose its electrons to form positive ions. Similarly, the non-metal gains electrons and forms negative ions. All atoms gain or lose electrons to arrange its electrons to the nearest noble gas.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds are hard, brittle solids with a high melting point.
• Most ionic compounds are electrolytes; a compound that separates into ions when it dissolves into water, producing a solution that conducts electricity.

Naming Ionic Compounds

Many if not all ionic compounds are made up of two elements: a metal and a non-metal. To name the compound, you name the metal first, leaving it unchanged, and then add the non-metal adding the suffix “ide”.

Metal	Metal Ion	Non-Metal	Non-metal Ion	Compound
magnesium	magnesium ion	chlorine	chloride ion	magnesium chloride
aluminium	aluminum ion	oxygen	oxide ion	aluminum oxide

Elements with multiple Ionic Charges

Some elements are special, that is they are able to form stable compounds with different ionic charges. An example of this is iron (Fe). Iron forms two ionic ions, Fe+2 and Fe+3. Because of this we rename these ionic compounds with roman numerals in brackets to indicate the form of iron. for example there are two different compounds of iron chloride, FeCl2  and FeCl3. as such we rename the ionic compound Iron (II) Chloride and Iron (III) Chloride respectively.

Molecules and Covalent Bonding

Molecular compounds are compounds made up of two or more non-metals.

Molecular compounds form when two non-metals bond with each other. the two non-metals engage in a “tug of war” for electrons that neither atom will win. the result is that the two atoms will share each other’s electron, resulting in a covalent bond. Covalent bonds can form with two identical atoms or between atoms of different elements.

Covalent Bonds is a bond that results from the sharing of outer electrons between non-metal atoms.

Naming Covalent Bonds

Chemists have established a system for naming molecular compounds that involves the use of prefixes to specify the number of atoms.

Prefix	Number of Atoms	Sample molecular compound
mon( o)-	1	carbon monoxide, CO
di-	2	carbon dioxide, CO2
tri-	3	sulfur trioxide, SO3
tetra-	4	carbon tetrachloride, CCl4
penta-	5	phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5

Polyatomic Ions

A Polyatomic ion is an ion made up of more than one atom that acts as a single particle.

Name of Polyatomic ion	Ion Formula	Ionic Charge
Nitrate	NO3-	-1
Nitrite	NO2-	-1
Hydroxide	OH-	-1
Hydrogen Carbonate (Bicarbonate)	HCO3-	-1
Chlorate	ClO3-	-1
Carbonate	CO32-	-2
Sulfate	SO42-	-2
Phosphate	PO43-	-3
Ammonium	NH4+	+1
Acetate	C2H3O2-	-1

Most polyatomic ions are anions except ammonium. Also note that all the anion names end in “ate” except nitrite and hydroxide.
When forming ionic compounds with polyatomic atoms, treat the polyatomic ion as one unit.

    
+1    -3                          3(+1)     +     1(-3)
ex/ Na   PO4                           Na                PO4                          Na3PO4

Describing Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction a process in which substances interact, causing the formation of new substances with new properties.

Reactant a chemical, present at the start of a chemical reaction that is used up during the reaction.

Product a chemical that is produced during a chemical reaction.

Describing Chemical Reactions with Word  and Chemical Equations

Word equations are a way of describing  a chemical chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products.

Chemical equations are a way of describing a chemical reaction using the chemical formulas of the reactants and products.

	Reactants	Yields	Products
Word Equation:	iron+sulfur	→	iron (II) sulfide + energy
Chemical Equation:	Fe + S	→	FeS

Law of Conservation of Mass

A French chemist named Antoine Lavoisier discovered that the mass of the reactant must equal to the mass of the products.
Law of conservation of mass the statement that, in any given chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products.

Examples

H2 + Cl2 → HCL
In the formula above, the equation is not balanced. there are two hydrogen and two chlorine on the left side, but only one hydrogen and one chlorine on the right side. To correct this imbalance, we balance the equation by baking LHS = RHS (left hand side equal right hand side)

H2 + Cl2 → 2HCL

Now we have two hydrogen and two chlorine on the left side and two hydrogen and two chlorine on the right side making this equation balanced.

Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis

In a Synthesis reaction, the two simple reactants combine to form a larger or more complex product.  The general equation is the following: A+B → AB

Synthesis reaction	Equation
zinc sulfide	zn + S →  ZnS
sodium Chloride	2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Decomposition

In a Decomposition reaction, large compounds are broken down into smaller compounds or elements. The general equation is the following: AB→ A+B

Decomposition reaction	Equation
water	energy + 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
sodium azide	2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2

Single Displacement

In a Single Displacement reaction, an element displaces another element in a compound, forming a new compound and a new element. The general equation is the following:  A+BC→ AC+B

Single displacement reaction	Equation
Magnesium + Carbon dioxide	2Mg + CO2 → 2MgO + C
Copper + silver nitrate	Cu + 2AgNO3 → CuNO3 + 2Ag

Double Displacement

In a Double Displacement reaction, different compounds displace each other,forming two new compounds. The general equation is the following: AB+CD→AD+BC

Double displacement reaction	Equation
Silver nitrate + sodium chloride	AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
Lead(II) Nitrate + potassium iodide	Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3

Combustion

What is combustion?

Combustion is the rapid reaction of a substance with oxygen to produce oxides and energy; burning.

Complete Combustion of Hydrocarbons

The products of a hydrocarbon can vary. the type of combustion depends on the availability of oxygen.  When oxygen is plentiful, complete combustion occurs. the formula for complete combustion is the following:
Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy

Incomplete Combustion of Hydrocarbons

When oxygen supplies are limited, incomplete combustion occurs, creating carbon monoxide and carbon in addition to carbon dioxide and water.  the general formula for incomplete combustion is the following:

Hydrocarbon + limited Oxygen → carbon dioxide + carbon monoxide + carbon + water + energy

Other Combustion Reactions

Ther general equation for combustion is the following:

element + oxygen → oxide + energy

Combustion of Hydrogen

Hydro reacts with oxygen to form water.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Combustion of Phosphorus

Red phosphorus is converted into white phosphorus through friction which instantly burns in the air.

P4 + 5O2 → P4O10

Corrosion

Beneficial Corrosion

Certain metals like aluminum and copper form a protective oxide that protects the metal from damages. This is why things like aluminum pans for camping do not rust if left in the rain.

Rust
Rust forms between iron and oxygen. The rust that forms from the corrosion does not stick well to the underlying layer, causing it to flake off. When it flakes off, a new layer of iron is revealed and corroded. This causes the iron to be completely eaten away. Oxygen and water causes the corrosion of iron. Electrolytes however do not corrode the metal. Electrolytes speed up the process of corrosion only when the process of corrosion starts.

Acids and Bases

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

Acids	Bases
aqueous	aqueous
conducts electricity	conducts electricity
neutralizes bases	neutralizes acids
tastes sour	tastes bitter
Can act as a preservative	feel slippery

Acid reactions with Metals

Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas.
Acid + Metal ⇒ Hydrogen Gas + Salt
2HCL + Zn ⇒ H2 + ZnCl2

Acid Reactions With Bases
Acids react with Bases to form carbon dioxide, water, and salt.
Acid + Base ⇒(Carbon Dioxide in rare cases) + Water + Salt
H(C2H3O2) +  Na(HCO3) ⇒ CO2 + H2O + Na(C2H3O2)

ALL ACIDS CONTAIN HYDROGEN
ALL BASES CONTAIN HYDROXIDE

The pH Scale
The pH scale is a scale that measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The higher the pH number, the more basic it is. The lower the pH number, the more acidic it is. A pH of 7 is neutral.  

pH = -log10[H+]

Source of Acid-Forming Pollutants

Sulfur Dioxide, SO2

1. Sulfur leaves the factory reacting with oxygen and producing SO2
2. SO2 Reacts with the oxygen in the air producing SO3
3. SO3 Reacts with the water vapours in the atmosphere creating H2SO4
4. H2SO4 Comes pouring down as acid rain.
5. WE’RE SCREWED

Nitrogen Oxides NOx (x is a variable)

1. N2  leaves the exhaust of a car and reacts with the oxygen in the air forming 2NO
2. 2NO reacts with the oxygen in the atmosphere creation 2NO2
3. 2NO2 reacts with the water vapours in the air creating 2HNO3 + NO
4. LIFE SUCKS

Lights and Optics

What is light?
Light is what makes our life on earth possible
Lights travel fast and in a straight line ; sharp shadows around objects like tree/railing are evidence of straight-line nature of light

Electromagnetic Wave
Heat energy can be transferred by conduction or convection. These two methods require a medium for such transmission
Medium is any physical substance through which energy can be transferred.
Light travels in a vacuum of outer space, which means that light needs NO medium for transmission. Instead, lights energy is transferred through radiation.
Electromagnetic wave is a wave who uses both electric and magnetic parts and travels at speed of light. Electromagnetic wave does not require a medium as well. These waves can be classified through the Electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic Waves in Our Society
Radio Waves

• AM/FM Radio
• TV signals
• Cellphone communication
• Radar

Microwave

• Telecommunications
• Microwave

Infrared Light

• Remote Controls
• Lasers
• Heat Detection
• Keeping food warm in fast food restaurants

Visible Light

• Human vision
• Theatre lighting
• RAINBOW
• Visible lasers

Ultraviolet Light

• Skin tanning / sunburn
• Skin cancer
• Ultraviolet lasers
• Astronomy (discovering chemical composition of celestial bodies)

X-Rays

• Medical Imaging
• Security equipment [airport]
• Cancer treatment

Gamma Rays

• Cancer Treatment
• Product of some nuclear decay

The colours of Visible Light
The Visible light is composed with sequence of colours. This is called Visible Spectrum.
There are 7 distinct colours that can be identified.
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet
These colours travel at the same high speed
Red light → slows down the least
Violet Light → slows down the most
How is Light Produced?
People believe lights only comes from the Sun, light bulb or fire, however lights are located everywhere. Trees, for example, is visible due to the light coming from tree into your eyes. Sun, on the other hand, radiates its own light, and it is known as luminous. Trees reflect the lights and it is called non-luminous.
There are various ways to produce lights using luminous sources.

Light from Incandescence
This is the production of light as a result of a high temperature.
light from burning candle and sparks from grinder are example of incandescence.
Light bulbs also occurs in incandescence.

Light from Electric Discharge
Electric discharge produce light by passing electric current through a gas.
ex. Neon Sign
When electricity hits gas molecules, they JUMP UP and fall back down, emitting light.

Light from Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence  produces light by absorbing UV light. This result a release of visible light over extended time.
ex. glow-in-the-dark sticker
When UV hits the phosphors on sticker, the UV releases visible light

Light from Fluorescence
Fluorescence occurs when object absorbs UV light and release energy in form of visible light immediately.
ex. Highlighter pen
the ink contains fluorescence dye that causes ink to glow in presence of UV light, which is part of the normal daylight.
ex. Fluorescent light tube the tube is coated with fluorescent material. When electricity meets the mercury vapours, it emits UV light. This UV light hits y, the mercury atoms gets excited, emitting UV light.












Light from Chemiluminescence
Chemiluminescence is the direct production of light as the result of a chemical reaction with little or no heat produced.
ex. glow stick

Light from Bioluminescence
Bioluminescence is the production of light in living things as the result of chemical reaction with little/no heat produced.
ex. firefly

The Ray Model of Light

 A luminous object such as a candle radiates light in all direction. This is easily seen because a candle will illuminate all objects surrounding it in a complete sphere. For a more clear image you can illustrate it by using the concept of light rays. A light ray is a line and arrow representing the direction and straight - line of light.

The use of light rays to determine the path of light when it strikes an object is called geometric optics. When light emitted from  a source (such as recall the matter can be classified into three categories depending on how it behaves when light strikes it. A transparent   object (such as clear glass) lets light pass through it easily and allows objects behind it to be clearly seen. A translucent object (such as frosted glass) allows some light to pass  through but does not allow you to clearly see objects behind it. An opaque material (such as cardboard) does not allow any light to pass through it. Instead,all incident light is either absorbed or reflected and it is not possible to see objects behind the opaque material.

Light from Triboluminescence
Triboluminescence is the production of light from friction as result from scratching, crushing, or rubbing certain crystals.
ex. rubbing two quartz crystals

Light from a Light-Emitting Diode
LED is the light produced as result of electric current flowing in semiconductors[material that allows eletric to flow in one direction]

The Terminology of Reflection
Plane [flat] mirror shows how predictable light passes through when it hits the mirror. Incident ray is the original ray that is incoming. The ray that reflects off the mirror is the reflected ray. The normal, is the line that is perpendicular to reflecting mirror surface. Normal is located between the incident ray and reflected ray.

Reflecting Light Off Surface
Specular reflection is the reflection of light off smooth and shiny surface, including the water in lakes and a sheet of aluminum foil.
Diffuse reflection is the reflection of light off irregular or dull surface, such as lake with ripples in water and crumpled piece of aluminum foil.

Dyslexia is when people see reading prints unusually curvy and see paper too bright.

Law of Reflection
Angle of incidence is the angle between Incident ray and the normal.
Angle of Reflection is the angle between reflected ray and the normal.

Images in Plane Mirrors
As explained, light travels in a straight line, and this can be proven through our eyes detecting reflected light from plane mirror, which then gets projected backwards in straight line through your brain. This results your brain to think that there is light source behind the mirror. However, because the image is opaque, there is no real light source behind the mirror. This image is called the Virtual image, which is formed by light from apparent light source.
※Note: Light rays behind the mirror are drawn as dashed lines. This virtual image is created from your brain which projects rays behind mirror.


Labeling Plain Mirror Using S.A.L.T
S.A.L.T stands for Size, Altitude, Location, and Type. Make sure you label these four characteristics of plane mirror’s image when asked!
Lateral Inversion
Lateral inversion only occurs in a plain mirror.
example:





Curved Mirrors
There are two curved mirrors - the Concave and the Convex mirror.
Concave mirrors are mirrors shaped like a surface of sphere in which the inner surface is reflective.
Convex mirrors are mirrors shaped like surface of sphere in which the outer surface is reflective.
These two mirrors are described through usage of similar terms.
The Centre of Curvature : Centre of sphere
The Principal Axis : a line that goes through the C.O.C to the midpoint of mirror
Vertex : point where P.A meets the mirror


How to Locate the Image in a Concave Mirror

To locate images in concave mirror. two incident rays are required from the top of object. The two rays will be reflected off the mirror and possibly create an image.
1. Light ray parallel to PA reflects through F
2. Light ray through COC reflects back itself
3. Light ray through F reflects parallel to the PA
4.  Ray aimed at vertex follows law of reflection because PA is perpendicular to surface of mirror

Images of Concave mirror
How to Locate the Image in a Convex Mirror

The parts of a convex mirror and the imaging rules for a convex mirror are similar to those for a concave mirror. The difference is that F(now called a virtual focus) and C are behind the mirror and light rays seem to come from an apparent light source behind the mirror.

Examples that Uses Converging Mirror

Car headlight, flashlight, searchlight, and satellite all uses concave mirror.

searchlight radiates light from focus  so the reflected rays are parallel.

Satellite receives parallel rays reflects them to the focus where detector is located.

Images in a Convex Mirror

The rays reflected off a convex mirror always diverge. For this reason, a convex mirror is also called a diverging mirror. Reflected rays from an object never cross in front of the mirror to form a real image. The human brain again, extrapolated these rays behind the mirror to  where they appear to converge. This results in the diverging (convex) mirror producing a smaller, upright,virtual image. This property makes convex mirrors very useful as security mirrors in stores. Convex mirrors show a wide range of view with their smaller virtual image. Convex mirrors are also used as the side-view mirror on vehicles.

Lasers - A Special Type of Light

A laser, in contrast, produces electromagnetic waves of exactly the same energy level. This results in visible laser light being of a very pure colour. A laser light is very intense because the electromagnetic waves  travel in exactly the same direction and the waves are exactly in unison. Laser light is pure in colour, very intense and concentrated in one narrow beam. For this reason, you should NEVER  look directly into a laser beam- it could damage your eyes.These unique properties of lasers make  them very useful. A high energy laser can be used to burn a hole through steel in a manufacturing  process. It can also be used by a surveyor to measure distances.

What is Refraction?

Refraction is when light travels from one material into another because LIGHT BENDS

Two rules for Refraction to occur:

1. Incident, refracted & the normal must all lie on the same plane
2. Light bends towards the normal when the speed of light decreases

Labs we did in class:

• ray box placed near the prism to identify refracted ray & emergent ray
• placing coin in a container, pour water and see if change occurred

[coin will be visible when water is poured]

Apparent Depth
Apparent depth is when object  appears to be in different location due to refraction; bending of light as it enters another media
the observer sees the object in another location than it is!
To locate I

• draw incident & norma; between two media
• repeat
• drag back the refracted rays
• where the lines meet is where the  image is

Did you know?
Not only water contains refraction, but sun offers a unique refraction as well!
when sun is near horizon during sunset, sun appears flat due to refraction.

Mirage
Mirage is a virtual image formed by the result of refraction and total internal reflection in Earth’s atmosphere. Mirage appears when light is traveling from cool to warm air.

Shimmering moon
Shimmering moon is caused by light refracted as they pass air of different temperatures.
Coldest air layer= slower speed of light [light bends towards normal]

Rainbow
Rainbow refracts from white light. It goes through dispersion, a separation of white light into its constituent colours.
Such special kind of refraction occur in both diamond and raindrops.


Index of Refraction

• It is the amount by which a transparent medium decreases the speed of light which is indicated by a number.
• Light travels the fastest in a vacuum [3.00x108]
• Mediums slow down light because it contains higher index of refraction

Vacuum = C   Speed of light in medium = V
n = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium
*the [n] tells us how much you bend
The higher the [n], the more light bens →slower speed
When calculating the Index of Refraction, always use:
Given → c=?  v=?  n=?
Required → What to define?
Analyze → Equation
Solve → Solve and answer
Solution → Statement?

Total Internal Reflection
Situation when angle of Incidence is greater than critical angle

• TIR’s angle of incidence is now called the critical angle, which results a refraction of 90 degrees.
• The farther AWAY from the normal, the SLOWER the refraction.

Labs:

1. Finding critical angles of water / oil / acrylic
2. Acrylic shapes to show parascope
3. Triangular prism to show rainbow [dispersion]

Applications of T.I.R.
Diamond
The T.I.R causes the diamond to sparkle !
The critical angle for diamond is 24.4º [LIGHT BENDS A LOT]

Fibre Optics
It is the technology which uses light along glass cables. The laser beam undergoes T.I.R in glass rod cable - Light must not escape as it travels.
This cable has a tiny critical angle. Fibre optics are mainly used in phone, computer, movies, auto [transmitting light to instrument panels in ear] and medicine [to see human body (endoscopy and colonoscopy)]
Thin Lens Equations
Lens Terminology

do	distance of object from optical center
di	distance of image from optical center
ho	height of object
hi	height of image
f	focal length

The equation 1 do +1di=1fis called the Thin Lens Equation.
The Magnification Equation      M=hiho=dido
*note : [+] is upright and [-] is inverted*

Application of Lenses
The camera - uses converging lens.

• It produces inverted real image
• Camera takes large distant object and creates a smaller real image
• The sensor in digital camera flips image

Biology

Biology as a science is built on three simple but very important ideas. these three ideas form the
CELL THEORY. The cell theory states that
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells in their products
2. The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes.
3. All cells come from other cells; they do not come from non-living matter.

Cell Structure

Organism with nucleus are called eukaryote, organism without nucleus are called prokaryote.

Organelle: A cell structure that performs a specific function for the cell.

Cytoplasm: Everything inside a cell is suspended by cytoplasm, the cytoplasm mostly consists of water, a lot of the chemical reactions take place inside the cytoplasm.

Cell Membrane: The shell of the cell

Nucleus: A roughly spherical structure within the cell. The nucleus contains genetic info that controls all cell activities. This is also known as the DNA, DNA is copied during cell division. Nucleus is not to be mixed up with Nucleolus.

Mitochondria: Makes energy for the cell, the mitochondria contains enzymes that help convert stored energy into a usable form, this process is called cellular respiratory and requires oxygen.

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Usable energy

Endoplasmic Reticulum: A 3D network of tubes and pockets that go through the cytoplasm, this Endoplasmic Reticulum transports materials, such as proteins through the cell.

Golgi Bodies: Collect and process materials to be removed from the cell such as proteins.

Vacuoles: The job of the Vacuole varies greatly, according to the type of cell. These functions include containing substances to removing unwanted substances from the cell.  and maintaining internal fluid pressure within the cell.

Plant exclusive organelles

Cell wall: This wall is outside the cell membrane giving the plant, cell wall provides support for the cell and protection from physical injury. cell walls are normally quadrilaterals.

Vacuole: Plant cells usually have one large vacuole, these vacuoles can take up a lot of space.

Chloroplasts: Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, chlorophyll makes the plankt green, more importantly chloroplasts absorb light energy which they use for photosynthesis.

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (Sunlight) → Glucose + oxygen

Vocabulary (excluding parts of cell)

prokaryote: a cell that doesn’t contain a nucleus or other membrane - bound organelles

eukaryote: a cell that does contain a nucleus and other organelles, each surrounded by a thin membrane

DNA(deoxynbonucleic acid): the material in the nucleus of a cell that contains all of the cell’s genetic information

mitosis: the stage of a cell that the DNA in the nucleus is divided; the first part of cell division

cytokinesis: the stage in the cell cycle that the cytoplasm divides to form two identical cells; final part of cell division

daughter cell: one of two genetically identical new cells that result from the division of one parent cell

chromosome: a structure in the cell nucleus made up of a portion of the cell’s DNA condensed into a structure that is visible under a light microscope

chromatid:  one of two identical strands of DNA that make up a chromosome

centromere: the structure that holds chromatids together as chromosomes

cancer: a broad group of diseases that result in uncontrolled cell division

tumour: a mass of cells that continue to grow and divide without any obvious function in the body

benign tumour: a tumour that doesn’t affect surrounding tissues other than by physically crowding them

mutation:  a random change in the DNA
carcinogen: any environmental factor that causes cancer
specialized cell: a cell that can perform a specific function

Cells
WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE ?
-Cells get too big, too old (Repair and Maintenance)
* Process of division called mitosis
* All body cells divide

Cell Survival
- Cells get tired, Run out of food cannot function as they get older
… Skin cell: 5-7 days
… Stomach cell: 1-2 days
… Blood cells... 120 days
- Cell cannot feed itself → Diffusion (high to low concentration of food)
*Note : As cells get older, Diffusion slows down and therefore cells signal to divide to be able to stay healthy and efficient.

In a normal cell, a cell membrane must allow H20 nutrients to enter the cytoplasm to maintain the health of the cell. The movement of H20 from a higher concentration to a lower concentration is called osmosis and the movement of nutrients from a higher concentration to a lower concentration  is called diffusion.

CELL CYCLE

Specialized Cells
- a cell that can perform a specific function
- cell specialization involves a change in form & function as well as in appearance

CELL DIVISION

(TOO SCARY) 1 IN 4

Cells undergo cell division for reproduction, growth and repair.

The Cell Cycle is exclusive to eukaryotic cells as they grow and divide

Process of cell division: The process can be shortened into an acronym called IPMAT (interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).

Interphase


Prophase

Metaphase
Anaphase

The chormatids of the chromosomes separate at the centromere and go to opposite poles.





Late Anaphase
The seperation at the middle is known as cytokinesis.
At this stage the spindle starts to disappear and the cytoplasm starts to divide.

Telephase


Asexual VS Sexual Reproduction

Asexual	Sexual
-No mixing of DNA -No Sex Cell -One Parent -Fast -Clones	-Mix sperm & egg DNA -2 Parents -Variations of offsprings are different -Slow

Special Cell - Stem Cell
-cellular differentiation (“change”) - process that makes specialized cells through genetic      
information (DNA code)
-stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide to form a specialized cell (has a specific job)
-after mitosis each daughter cell can develop into a different type of cell based on which part of its DNA is switched on
-2 eggs of stem cells →embryonic (differentiate into type of cell) stem cells
    ↘adult bone marrow cells (platelets, breast cells, red blood cells,

      white blood cells

    ↪tissue stem cells

Mitosis/DNA Affect
1. Aging - it is in our cells
 - faulty cell divisions cause cells to stop dividing and die (lead to diseases like Alzheimer’s)
 - errors in DNA duplicate (leads to heart and kidney failures)
→aging genes - chromosome change as we age
→Telomeres - protect the chromosome from damage during cell division as we age but telomeres get shorter as we age


→centromeres location does not align properly as we age...therefore faulty division

2.Cancer -will cells live forever? NO
    -a cell dies as a normal part of its life; such controlled cell death is known as apoptosis  (the death of cells that are no longer useful and it removes cells that have lost their ability to perform efficiently)
→ a cancer cell  is a cell that divides uncontrollably
↳develop when a change occurs in the cell that affects how the cell divides
↳when a cell’s DNA is changed(cigarette smoke, UV radiation or viruses)  this is called a

mutation   

↳a cancer cell divides differently from a normal cell
↳normal cells live for 50-60 divisions and undergo apoptosis if damaged whereas a cancer cell

does not stop dividing

Types of Cell Division

Carcinogens (cancer causes)

• tobacco smoke
• radiation
• X-Rays, UV
• human papilloma virus (HPV)
• hepatitis B
• chemicals in plastic
• organic solvents

Cancer Screening
-increases chances of detecting cancers
-PAP test → for cervical cancer
-PSA test → for prostate cancer
-ABCD of moles...when seeing a dermatologist
↳ Asymmetry, Border, Colour, Diamater

*To reduce risks of cancer*
-healthy lifestyle choices
-healthy diet
-less fatty meat

Diagnosis of Cancer
-tumours (some) cause swelling
-extreme fatigue
-blood test
-imaging technologies → endoscopy & fibre optics
-x-rays for bones, lungs, etc.
-mammogran x-ray normally for breast cancer
-ultra sound that use sound waves
-C.T. Scan (computerized tomagraphy-xray that is taken at all angles)
-MRI (magnetic resonance imaging - radio waves, strong magnetic fields)
↳ creates images with lots of detail

Treatment for Cancer

1. Surgery - remove cancer tissue itself
2. Chemotherapy - drugs that slow/stop the cancer cells from spreading & dividing
3. Radiation Therapy - kills the daughter cells (damaged by radiation)

        - directed at a tumour using a beam

Specialized Cells

Red Blood Cells	RBC’s contain hemoglobin which carries oxygen through the blood	Storage Cells	Cells in a plant that store excess starch for the plant.
White Blood Cells	WBC’s  engulf bacteria and fight infection	Photosynthetic Cells	Cells that contain many chloroplasts to collect energy from the sun
Nerve Cells	Nerve cells are long, thin, and have many branches. Tejy conduct electrical impulses to coordinate the body	Epidermal Cells	Epidermal Cells contain hairs that absorb water from the soil.
Mus-cles	Muscle cells are arranged in bundles called muscle fibres. These fibres can expand and contract causing bone to move.	Guard Cells	Guard Cells in the surface of leaves control water loss and air intake.
Bone Cells	Bone cells collect calcium and allow the growth and repair of bone.

Single cells..ex bacteria, blue -green algae function independentyl
- specialized animal cells .. cannot survive on their own ex. bone cell, stomach cell

Animals	Plants
-Epithelial, cells (surface)	- ground tissue
-Connective cell (support)	-vascular tissue
-muscle cells (movement contract)	- epidermal tissue
-nerve cells conduct electrical impulses)

Stem Cells - process that makes specialized cells
-directed by genetic info.

to start undifferentiated cell that can divide to form specialized cell
*after mitosis each daughter can develop into a different type of cell based on which  parts of its DNA are switched ON.

2 types of stem cells - embryonic ( can become any type of cell)
- adult stem cells (tissue stem cell)
undifferentiated into certain types of cells - white blood cells
                                                               - platelets
                                                               - red blood cells
*Leukemia diseased with white blood cells.
- injected with stem cells to replace them

NOTE: regeneration of body limbs can dwras in animals ex. seastar.

Chapter 3

Basic Definitions
Hierarchy: An organizational Structure, with more complex or important thigns at the top and simpler less important things below it.

Tissue: A collection of similar cells taht perform a particular, but limited, function.

Organ: A structure composed of different tissues working together to perform a complex body function:

Organ system: A system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function such as digestion or reproduction: EX. Digestive system.

Digestive system: The Human Digestive System is complex and long, involving many organs of the human body.  Depicted in the picture on right. Is the human digestive tract.

Mouth: Mouth is the first process of breakign down food, both mechanically and chemically with saliva and teeht. Saliva is a mixture of water and enzymes, Saliva softens and breaks up the food.

Esophagus: The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting from mouth to stomach. the muscles are special type of muscle, called smooth muscle tissue, which can contract and relax without conscoius thought, the contracvtion moves the food along.

Stomach: The stomach is one of the major organs in the digestive system. The main function of the stomach is to hold food and churn it so it can continue the process of digestion. The stomach lining contains acids and enzymes. Smooth muscle contractions mix the contents within the stomach. There are alot of nervs in the tomach to signal when to eat.

Ascessory organs

Liver: Produces a fluid called bile which helps breakdown the fats in our food.

Pancreas: Produces an important enzyme called insulin. insulin regulates the concentration of glucose in the blood. Diabetes is a disease in whcihc the pancreas produces too much or too little insulin.

Gal Baldder: Produces a fluid that aids digestion

The Circulatory System
Parts of the Circulatory system
Blood, Blood vessels and

Climate Change

Weather and Climate
Weather is atmospheric conditions, including temperature, precipitation, wind and humidity, in a particular location over a short period of time, such as a day or a week.
Weather is caused by interactions between water and air on earth and the energy from the sun. We use weather stations, weather balloons, and satellites to predict the weather.

Climate is the average weather in a region over a long period of time.

Radiation Types

There are three types of radiation emitted from the sun:

• Ultraviolet
• Visible Light
• Infrared

Energy Absorbed from the Sun

1. When radiation contacts a particle of matter, one of three things happens. The radiation may be absorbed by the article, causing the particle to gain energy.
2. The radiation may be transmitted through the particle.
3. The radiation may be reflected off the particle.

70-30 rule

70% of the sun’s radiation is absorbed by the earth. 30% is reflected back into space.









The Greenhouse Effect


The greenhouse effect is a natural process where the gases and clouds absorb infrared radiation (emitted by earth’s surface) and radiates it, heating the Earth’s atmosphere and the surface. The average global temperature is 15°C. Without greenhouse effect and the climate system, the a.g.t. would be about -18°C, which is too cold for life to survive. Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and exist on low concentration.
There are five main greenhouse gases which affect our planet :

• Water vapour
• Carbon Dioxide
• Methane
• Tropospheric Ozone
• Nitrous Oxide

Water Vapour

• 66% of greenhouse effect
• More Temperature on Earth, more water vapour

(this is related by feedback loop)

Carbon Dioxide

• 25% of natural greenhouse effect
• Natural [Exhale, volcano eruption, cellular respiration]
• Human Resource [Deforestation]

Carbon Sink is when reservoirs, including forest and ocean, absorb carbon dioxide from atmosphere and store carbon in different form.

Forest has a carbon sink which has the ability to “dump” Carbon Dioxide in them

Ocean, on the other hand, has the ability to send Carbon Dioxide to the bottom of the ocean. These CO2 can help many aquatic animals create shells (ex. crab, crayfish)

Methane

• One molecule is 23X worse than Co2
• Natural [decomposition in swamp, animal digestion]
• Human sources [Vehicle Emission]

Ozone

• Naturally in Stratosphere
• From human resources in Troposphere
• Very difficult to get measurement because it changes rapidly

Nitrous Oxide

• There are less N2O than CO2, however one N2O molecule = 300X worse than CO2
• Natural [reaction of bacteria in soil and water]
• Human source [fertilizers]

Convection Currents & Thermohaline Circulation


Feedback loops

Water Vapour Feedback Loop

Two thirds of the earth’s greenhouse gas is made up of water vapour. Water vapour and temperature are related in a cycle called a feedback loop. A feedback loop is a process in which the result acts to influence the original process. Here, higher temperatures cause more water to evaporate. When more water evaporates the extra water vapours in the atmosphere absorb more radiation from the sun, causing warmer temperatures. This is called a positive feedback loop.

The Albedo Effect

Albedo is a measure of how much of the Sun’s radiation is reflected by a surface.

Different surfaces reflect different amounts of the Sun’s radiation. Ice and snow have a high albedo, meaning they reflect a lot of the sun's radiation. Grass and trees on the other hand have a low albedo.









The Atmosphere ({insert Mr.Paolini comic here}SPACE, THE FINAL FRONTIER)


Earth is wrapped up in layers of gases. Together, these layers make up the atmosphere. Air is a mixture of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and the remaining 1% a combination of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and ozone.

Ozone in the Stratosphere

Ozone is found the stratosphere where it absorbs and reflects ultraviolet rays.

Ozone in the Troposphere

Although ozone has a protective role in the stratosphere, it has a negative effect in the troposphere. Ozone in the troposphere creates photochemical smog, which is harmful to human health, damages buildings, and affects plants and animals.


Long-Term and Short-Term Changes in Climate

Long-Term Changes Due to Continental Drift

-Continental Drift (plate tectonics)

- Interglacial periods

(time between ice age and when earth warms up)

The rotation of the earth and the tilt of the earth affects the climate.

Why Do interglacial Periods and Ice Ages Keep Happening?

In 1941, an engineer and amateur astronomer named Milutin Milankovitch studied long-term cycles of climate change. He developed a theory on the causes for these changes. Milankovitch called that Earth's orbit around the sun changes in three main ways

• Eccentricity (shape of orbit) : The shape of Earth’s orbit  around the sun varies from being nearly circular to being more elliptical (like a flattened circle). This variation is caused by the influence of Jupiter’s and Saturn’s gravities. It has several components, which combine to give an approximate cycle of 1000 000 years. Earth’s orbit is currently more elliptical
• Tilt: Over a cycle of about 41 000 years, Earth's tilts back and forth on its axis from 22.1° to 24.5° . As the angle increases, seasonal differences increase. Earth’s axis is currently at 23.5° . The angle is slowly decreasing.
• Precession of tilt (wobble): As Earth spins on its axis,it slowly wobbles in a cycle over 26 000 years. The angle of tilt remains approximately the same, but the direction of the tilt changes. This is similar to how a top behaves when you spin it. Earth’s axis currently pointing towards Polaris, which we call the North Star. More than 5000 years ago, the North Star was Thuban. In another thousand years, Airai will be the new North Star.

Together, these changes add up to regular cycles of ice ages and interglacial periods.These regular cycles have taken place for more than 400 000 years. These small changes in Earth’s orbit happen very slowly, over tens and hundreds of thousands of years.The small changes in the amount of energy Earth receives from the Sun temporarily  unbalance the climate system. Positive feedbacks effects then enhance this small change. The climate  system rebalances again, but at a different global temperature. A decrease in energy from the Sun causing lower temperatures, creates a warm interglacial period. Today we are in a relatively warm period.

Short-Term Changes Due to Volcanic Eruptions
Caused by a variety of factors, including volcanic eruptions, small changes in the suns radiation and changes in the circulation of air and ocean currents.

Volcanic Eruptions  spew rock, dust, and gases high into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide in particular reflect the Sun’s energy back out to space. This has the effect of cooling down down the earth’s climate.

Air and Ocean Currents
Air and ocean currents affect Earth’s climate in many different ways.
A dramatic event takes place in the Pacific Ocean once every three to seven years. The prevailing winds temporarily switch directions changing the ocean currents in that area. This effect is called the El Nino.





Clues to Past Climate
Natural materials such as rocks  and ice  preserve clues to past climates. Proxy record are stores of natural information that we can measure today that tells us what the climate was like in the distant past.
Ice Cores

The ice in Greenland and Antarctica contains air bubbles that have been trapped thousands of centuries. Scientists drill deep into the ice and extract long cylinders of ice called ice cores. The ice at the top of an ice core may be up to 800 00 years old. Ice cores provide our longest record of conditions in the atmosphere.Scientist cut the ice cores into very thin slices and test the air bubbles in each slice for various gases. The test establishes how much carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the air when the air bubble formed. Ice cores show paleoclimatologist that concentrations of these greenhouse gases have changed dramatically over Earth’s history.

Scientists also test ice cores for oxygen. Different types of atoms of oxygen exists. Some types are heavier than others. By measuring the ratio of light to heavy oxygen  atoms, scientist can obtain information about air temperature. The colder the air when the bubble was formed, the more light oxygen is present in the bubble. Ice cores five information on precipitation and on volcanic eruptions through preserving layers of dust.

Ice core records show scientist that Earth has gone through many changes in climate, from ice ages to interglacial periods and back to ice ages. also they know that temperature and greenhouse gas concentrations increase and decrease at the same time.l During warmer periods, levels of greenhouse gasses were higher when it was cooler, levels were lower.

Trees Ring and Coral Reefs

Trees create one growth ring per year. Trees rings are thickest in years with good growing conditions. For example, a warm, wet year will produce a thick growth ring, whereas a cold, dry year will produce a thing ring.

Rock, Ocean, Sediment and Caves

Layers of soil and rock build up on Earth’s surface over time . Each layer may contain clues such as plants pollen fossils , to the climate at that time in the location. Fossils of pollen grains can be used to identify plants that grew thousands of years previously.Scientist who study pollen are called palynologist. They use the size, shape, and presence of pores, furrows, and air sacs to identify the species of the plants. in the ocean, layers of sediment drift to the ocean floor and form layers of rock.

Global Impacts of Climate Change

Impacts of climate change:  effects on human society and our natural environment that are caused by changes in climate, such as rises in Earth’s global temperature.

Four impacts of climate change
Rising Sea Level

As glaciers and ice sheets melt and the ocean warms up and expands, the sea level of the ocean will rise. (flooding)

Impacts on Agriculture
- Dry regions like Africa getting even less rainfall.
- crops may be less productive - people will experience famine
- Southern United States and Japan (same latitude) could experience flooding due to more rainfall
Impacts on Ecosystems
- some animals more likely to migrate towards the poles as their habitat becomes unsuitable
-biodiversity may be reduces
- plankton for whales - less plankton therefore, whale population will decrease
- plankton are dying  because temperature is too high and the C02 - acid in ocean and that will cause the food web to be in trouble

Impacts on Human, Plant, and Animal Health

-pests.. disease carriers... live in warmer climates and are moving to other cooler “areas” therefore pests are spreading  diseases globally.
Ex: malaria transmitted by mosquitoes
ex: Pine beetles.. has destroyed many trees in B.C and Canada. and now is going to the mountains

How can Changes in the Arctic Affect the Rest of the world?
1. Albedo effect- if the Arctic ice melts it will get warmer

2. Release of Carbon dioxide- permafrost is melting. Permafrost (contains C02)

3. Sea level rise- as ice melts there is going to be flooding

4. Ocean Currents - thermohaline - convection current.

5. Biodiversity many animals and species are being affected and they are losing their habitats.. affecting the food webs

6. Changes in shipping and transportation - easier for cargo ships to go by.

Evidence of Climate Change

1. Rising temperature

2. Melting glaciers

3. Rising sea levels- when glaciers melt, water runs ( thermal expansion -> as water warms up it expands)

4. Change in Severe Weather- heat waves
- hurricanes

5. Changes in precipitation patterns
ex. Asia...getting drier

6. Changing Seasons
- the amount of snow in winter in decreasing
- the frequency of cold days has decreased

7. Changes in Ecosystems
Animal, plants, respond to changes in temperature and precipitation.
ex. shrubs, trees..flower early in spring..squirrels..breeding earlier
-animals migrate later in the winter

Anthropogenic - sources of Greenhouse Gases
- result of HUMAN sources

1. CO2 - burning fossil fuels
- deforestation

2. CH4  - sewage treatment
- coal mining
- deforestation
- natural gas extraction

3. Nitrous Oxide - fossil fuels
(N20)                 - emissions
- nitrogen fertilizers

4. CFC
(Chlorofluorocarbon) - no natural sources
- leaking refrigerators, air conditioners
                                   (cooling devices)


What Can Government do to help with Climate Change?
Transportation  

• bike lanes
• better public transported
• special car lanes (use less fuel)
• Emission test
• drive less/walk

Produce energy

• windmills
• solar panels
• hydroelectricity

Industries

• recycling - smokestacks (cleaning up) - collect CO2
• checked by inspectors to make sure you have energy efficient equipment (charge-tax)
• 407 highway

Contractors

• special insulation
• tax better doors and windows

Agriculture

• fertilizer
• reduce methane

Waste Management

• landfills - absorb methane (better trying to collect CH4 to use it for something else)
• compost
• recycling
• use less waste
• reuse bottles

How can We Adapt to Climate Change?

pests- growth rising due to climate change

Birds- helpp birds migrate

Agriculture- adapt with crops dying




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